What about the Cytoskeletal and Related Proteins of Tapeworms in the Host's Immune Response? An Integrative Overview.

Recent advances have increased our understanding of the molecular machinery in the cytoskeleton of mammalian cells, in contrast to the case of tapeworm parasites, where cytoskeleton remains poorly characterized. The pertinence of a better knowledge of the tapeworm cytoskeleton is linked to the medical importance of these parasitic diseases in humans and animal stock. Moreover, its study could offer new possibilities for the development of more effective anti-parasitic drugs, as well as better strategies for their surveillance, prevention, and control. In the present review, we compile the results of recent experiments on the cytoskeleton of these parasites and analyze how these novel findings might trigger the development of new drugs or the redesign of those currently used in addition to supporting their use as biomarkers in cutting-edge diagnostic tests.

Immunomodulatory effect of extracellular vesicles from Entamoeba histolytica trophozoites: Regulation of NETs and respiratory burst during confrontation with human neutrophils.

Parasites release extracellular vesicles (EVs) which, in some cases, modulate the host's immune response contributing to the establishment of the infection. In this work we have isolated and characterized the EVs released by trophozoites of the human protozoan parasite Entamoeba histolytica, the causal agent of amoebiasis, when alone or in coculture with human neutrophils, and determined their effect on neutrophil NETs and ROS production. Nanoparticle tracking analysis showed that amoebic EVs are variable in size, ranging from less than 50 nm to nearly 600 nm in diameter (average of 167 nm), whereas neutrophil EVs are more uniform in size, with an average of 136 nm. In cocultures amoeba:neutrophil (1:100) most EVs are 98 nm in size, which is the typical size of exosomes. EVs from amoebae and neutrophils showed almost equal levels of ROS, which were considerably increased in EVs from cocultures. Uptake of amoebic EVs by neutrophils was demonstrated by fluorescence and resulted in a significant reduction in the oxidative burst and NET release triggered by PMA, ionophore A23187, or the amoebae itself used as stimuli. Interestingly, uptake of EVs from cocultures did not affect ROS production, but instead caused a greater delay in the onset of NETs release and in their quantity. A comparative proteomic analysis between the EVs of amoebae and neutrophils separately vs the cocultures showed a similar distribution of protein categories in the GO analysis, but differences in the expression and abundance of proteins such as the N-acetyl-D-galactosamine (GalNAc) inhibitable surface lectin and calreticulin in amoeba EVs, and various antimicrobial molecules in neutrophil EVs, such as lactoferrin and myeloperoxidase. These results highlight the importance of EVs in the immunomodulatory effects exerted by amoeba on human neutrophils.

The Genomes of Two Strains of Taenia crassiceps the Animal Model for the Study of Human Cysticercosis.

Human cysticercosis by Taenia solium is the major cause of neurological illness in countries of Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Americas. Publication of four cestode genomes (T. solium, Echinococcus multilocularis, E. granulosus and Hymenolepis microstoma) in the last decade, marked the advent of novel approaches on the study of the host-parasite molecular crosstalk for cestode parasites of importance for human and animal health. Taenia crassiceps is another cestode parasite, closely related to T. solium, which has been used in numerous studies as an animal model for human cysticercosis. Therefore, characterization of the T. crassiceps genome will also contribute to the understanding of the human infection. Here, we report the genome of T. crassiceps WFU strain, reconstructed to a noncontiguous finished resolution and performed a genomic and differential expression comparison analysis against ORF strain. Both strain genomes were sequenced using Oxford Nanopore (MinION) and Illumina technologies, achieving high quality assemblies of about 107 Mb for both strains. Dotplot comparison between WFU and ORF demonstrated that both genomes were extremely similar. Additionally, karyotyping results for both strains failed to demonstrate a difference in chromosome composition. Therefore, our results strongly support the concept that the absence of scolex in the ORF strain of T. crassiceps was not the result of a chromosomal loss as proposed elsewhere. Instead, it appears to be the result of subtle and extensive differences in the regulation of gene expression. Analysis of variants between the two strains identified 2,487 sites with changes distributed in 31 of 65 scaffolds. The differential expression analysis revealed that genes related to development and morphogenesis in the ORF strain might be involved in the lack of scolex formation.

Annexin in Taenia crassiceps ORF Strain is Localized in the Osmoregulatory System.

PURPOSE: Annexins are proteins with important roles in parasites, some of which are related to excretion-secretion processes, protein traffic, and microvesicle functionality. The participation of annexins in osmoregulation has been reported in tapeworms, including Taenia solium. This study aimed to investigate the localization and expression of annexin in cysticerci of Taenia crassiceps, used as a model of cysticercosis. METHODS: We used an antibody made with a protein, previously employed on Schistosoma bovis, to detect annexin in T. crassiceps proteins extracts used Western blot assay. The histological distribution of annexin was studied with immunofluorescence and confocal microscopy. RESULTS: The antibody against annexin recognized a band at a molecular weight of 40.9 kDa. The histological distribution of annexin showed that the protein is mainly localized in the tegument and the protonephridia ducts. CONCLUSION: In our study, annexin was detected at a molecular weight similar to that described for Schistosoma bovis. In addition, its principal localization entailed structures of the osmoregulatory system one of the most important by the survival of the parasites. This confirms and solidifies previous reports concerning the role of annexins in T. crassiceps and this will be interesting by the development of new compounds against this protein.

Anti-amoebic Activity of Leaf Extracts and Aporphine Alkaloids Obtained from Annona purpurea.

Annona purpurea has been traditionally used by indigenous and socioeconomically disadvantaged people to treat infectious and parasitic diseases, including amoebiasis. The goal of this study was to assess the effect of a crude methanolic extract, an alkaloid extract, and aporphine alkaloids from leaves of A. purpurea on the viability of Entamoeba histolytica trophozoite cultures and to identify the mechanism of action. Different concentrations of the extracts and alkaloids purpureine (1: ), 3-hydroxyglaucine (2: ), norpurpureine (3: ) glaziovine (4: ), and oxopurpureine (5: ) were added to the cultures, and dead parasites were counted after 24 h using a tetrazolium dye reduction assay and analyzed by flow cytometry. The crude extract did not affect the viability of amoebae, but the alkaloid extract and the derived alkaloid glaziovine (4: ) had important anti-amoebic activity with an IC50 of 33.5 µM compared to that shown by metronidazole (6.8 µM). The treatments induced significant morphological changes in the trophozoites, and most parasites killed by the alkaloid extract were positive for Annexin V, suggesting that apoptosis was the main mechanism of action. In contrast, glaziovine (4: ) induced less apoptosis with more amoebic lysis. This study supports the idea that aporphine alkaloids from A. purpurea, mainly (+)-(R)-glaziovine (4: ), could contribute to the development of new formulations for the treatment of amoebiasis. In addition, X-ray diffraction structural analysis and complete 1H and 13C NMR assignments of (+)-(R)-glaziovine (4: ) were performed and reported for the first time.

In Vitro Analyses Reveal the Effect of Synthetic Cytokinin Forchlorfenuron (FCF) on a Septin-Like Protein of Taeniid Cysticerci.

Cytokinin forchlorfenuron (FCF), a synthetic cytokinin, has been used specifically for the characterization of septins. In spite of genomic evidence of their existence, nothing is known about septin filaments in taeniid cestodes. The aim of this work was to determine the presence of a septin-like protein in cysticerci of Taenia crassiceps and Taenia solium using the deduced amino acid sequence of T. solium septin 4 (SEPT4_Tsm), to design and synthesize a derived immunogenic peptide (residues 88 to 103), to prepare a specific rabbit polyclonal antibody, and to examine the effects of FCF at different concentrations and exposure times on an in vitro culture of T. crassiceps cysticerci. In vitro, FCF altered the morphology and motility of T. crassiceps cysticerci, and its effects were reversible under specific concentrations. In addition, we observed by ultrastructural observation that FCF alters the cellular subunit of the protonephridial system of cestodes, where disruption of the axoneme pattern of flame cells was observed. The rabbit polyclonal antibody prepared against the synthetic peptide recognized a major band of 41 kDa in both parasites. Our results establish the importance of SEPT4_Tsm in the dynamics and survival of taeniid cysticerci, as well as their susceptibility to FCF. This is also the first report that a septin is present in the cytoskeleton of taeniids.